Two Decades of Bt Cotton in India: A Story of Progress and Persistent Challenges

By Nimish Gangrade, Editor, Global Agriculture

The Bt Cotton Revolution

16 May 2025, New Delhi: When Bt cotton was introduced to Indian farmers in 2002, it promised to rewrite the rules of cotton cultivation. Developed to resist the destructive bollworm pest, this genetically modified crop quickly became a game-changer. Over the past twenty years, Bt cotton has come to dominate India’s agricultural landscape, now accounting for more than 95% of the country’s cotton acreage. A recent in-depth study by researchers at the ICAR-Central Institute for Cotton Research (CICR) in Nagpur provides a comprehensive look at this remarkable journey, revealing both its triumphs and its ongoing challenges.

Authored by Dr. A. Amarender Reddy, a leading agricultural economist, and Dr. Y.G. Prasad, Director of ICAR-CICR, the policy paper Two Decades of Bt Cotton in India: Impact and Policy Imperatives offers crucial insights into how this technology has transformed Indian agriculture. Their findings, based on decades of field data and economic analysis, tell a story of initial euphoria, gradual setbacks, and important lessons for the future of farming in India.

The Early Boom Years

The first decade after Bt cotton’s introduction (2002-2013) saw nothing short of an agricultural revolution. Cotton yields, which had stagnated at about 6 quintals per hectare (q/ha) in the pre-Bt era, surged to 16 q/ha by 2013. This dramatic increase came alongside a significant reduction in pesticide use – a major benefit for both farmer health and production costs. The study shows that insecticide expenses dropped from about 14-16% of total cultivation costs before Bt cotton to just 6-8% in the peak adoption years.

Perhaps most importantly, farmer incomes saw substantial growth. Data from Gujarat, India’s largest cotton-producing state, illustrates this transformation vividly. Where pre-Bt cotton yields averaged 10 q/ha, they climbed to 19 q/ha by 2013. Net profits per hectare peaked at ₹76,333 (in constant 2011-12 prices) in 2011, a dramatic improvement from the pre-Bt era when many cotton farmers struggled to break even.

The Complex Reality of Smallholder Farming

While Bt cotton brought undeniable benefits, the study reveals a more nuanced picture when examining its impact across different farm sizes. Contrary to early concerns that the technology would primarily benefit large farms, the data shows that small and marginal farmers initially saw equal or even greater yield improvements compared to their larger counterparts.

In the early adoption period (2001-2013), farms smaller than one acre consistently outperformed larger holdings in yield per hectare. This was likely due to more intensive labor and input application on small plots. However, this advantage diminished in later years (2013-2021), as larger farms began benefiting from economies of scale, better access to irrigation, and greater ability to weather climate shocks.

The research highlights an important policy lesson: while Bt cotton technology itself is scale-neutral, its long-term benefits are significantly influenced by supporting infrastructure and resources. Small farmers, often operating rainfed plots with limited capital, became increasingly vulnerable as secondary pests emerged and climate variability intensified.

Emerging Challenges: Pest Resistance and Climate Pressures

The study identifies 2013 as a turning point in India’s Bt cotton story. After more than a decade of success, farmers began facing new challenges that threatened to undo earlier gains. The most significant of these was the development of resistance in pink bollworm populations, rendering the original Bt technology less effective against this major pest.

This resistance development was exacerbated by poor compliance with refuge crop requirements – the practice of planting non-Bt cotton near Bt fields to slow pest adaptation. As resistance grew, insecticide use, which had fallen dramatically in the early Bt years, began creeping back up. By 2022, pesticide expenses had rebounded to about ₹2,725 per hectare, though still below pre-Bt levels.

Compounding the pest problem was increasing climate variability. The study notes that extreme weather events, particularly erratic rainfall patterns, became more frequent after 2013. These climate shocks hit hardest in rainfed cotton areas, which account for about 72% of India’s cotton acreage. The combination of pest resistance and climate stress led to yield stagnation, with national averages slipping from their 2013 peak of 16 q/ha to about 13 q/ha by 2020.

The Export Story: From Importer to Global Leader

One of Bt cotton’s most significant impacts has been on India’s position in global cotton markets. Before Bt adoption, India was an occasional cotton importer. By 2007, just five years after introduction, the country had become a major exporter, shipping 15.3 lakh tons of cotton lint. Exports peaked at 23.7 lakh tons in 2013, making India the world’s largest cotton exporter.

However, the study reveals that this export boom hasn’t been sustained at its peak levels. Since 2015, export volumes have fluctuated between 10-15 lakh tons annually. The researchers attribute this to several factors, including stagnating yields and increasing competition from countries with more advanced agricultural systems.

Policy Lessons for the Future

The ICAR-CICR study concludes with several critical recommendations for policymakers. First and foremost is the need to accelerate development and approval of next-generation Bt cotton varieties with stacked traits that can combat emerging pest resistance. The researchers note that while India continues using the BG-II variety introduced in 2006, other cotton-producing nations have moved on to more advanced technologies.

Equally important is the need to improve agronomic practices. The study highlights successful pilot projects using High Density Planting Systems (HDPS), which have increased yields by 30-40% in demonstration plots. Scaling up such practices, along with expanded irrigation and precision farming techniques, could help bridge India’s yield gap with global leaders like China and Brazil.

For smallholder farmers, the researchers emphasize the importance of targeted support programs. These could include subsidies for drip irrigation systems, improved access to weather-resistant seed varieties, and better extension services to promote sustainable pest management practices.

A Crossroads for Indian Cotton

As India reflects on twenty years of Bt cotton cultivation, the ICAR-CICR study provides both reason for optimism and cause for concern. The technology undeniably transformed Indian agriculture, boosting yields, reducing pesticide use, and lifting millions of farmers out of poverty. Yet its limitations have become equally apparent – from pest resistance to climate vulnerability.

The researchers’ final message is clear: Bt cotton remains a valuable tool, but it cannot carry Indian agriculture forward alone. The next decade will require a more holistic approach – combining advanced biotechnology with sustainable farming practices, robust policy support, and continued investment in agricultural research. Only then can India secure its position as a global cotton leader while ensuring the livelihoods of the millions who depend on this crucial crop.

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